Taksonomi Bloom Versi Baru

Benjamin S. Bloom amat populer di dunia pendidikan dengan taksonominya yang lazim disebut dengan taksonomi Bloom, walaupun yang menyusun taksonomi (klasifikasi, kategorisasi, penggolongan) tersebut bukan hanya Bloom seorang.

Taksonomi Bloom itu merupakan penggolongan (klasifikasi) tujuan pendidikan. Ada yang menyebutnya sebagai perilaku intelektual atau intellectual behavior. Saya suka-suka menyebutnya dengan daya-daya kemampuan manusia.

Tujuan pendidikan (“daya-daya kemampuan manusia”) itu dalam garis besarnya, menurut Bloom, terbagi menjadi tiga ranah atau kawasan (domain).

Pertama,  ranah kognitif, yaitu yang berkaitan dengan kognisi atau penalaran (pemikiran). Dalam bahasa pendidikan Indonesia disebut “cipta.”

Kedua,  ranah afektif, yaitu yang berkaitan dengan afeksi, yang dalam istilah pendidikan Indonesia disebut “rasa.” Para guru (dan penatarnya) suka menyempitkannya sebagai sikap, padahal bukan hanya itu.

Ketiga, ranah psikomotor, yang berkaitan dengan psikomotor atau gerak jasmani-jiwani, yaitu gerak-gerik jasmani yang terkait dengan jiwa. Padanan yang  mirip dalam khazanah istilah pendidikan Indonesia adalah “karya,” walau sebenarnya tidak sama persis. Para guru suka menyempitkannya dengan keterampilan, padahal bukan hanya itu.

Di buku lain ada “daya kemampuan manusia” selain kognisi, afeksi, dan psikomotor itu yang disebut dengan “konasi.” Konasi itu kemauan atau motivasi. Dalam istilah pendidikan Indonesia disebut “karsa.” Unsur konasi (ranah konatif) ini tampaknya oleh Bloom digabungkan ke dalam ranah afektif.

Taksonomi Bloom ranah kognitif dilukiskan “Wikipedia” dalam bentuk bunga mawar sebagai berikut. Anda harus memperbesarnya (“zoom in”) jika ingin jelas melihatnya.

Sejarahnya bermula ketika pada awal tahun 1950-an, dalam Konferensi Asosiasi Psikolog Amerika, sebagai kelanjutan kegiatan serupa tahun 1948, Bloom dan kawan-kawan mengemukakan bahwa persentase terbanyak butir soal evaluasi hasil belajar yang banyak disusun di sekolah hanya meminta siswa untuk mengutarakan hapalan mereka. Hapalan tersebut sebenarnya merupakan taraf terendah kemampuan berpikir (menalar atau “thinking behaviors”). Tegasnya, masih ada taraf lain yang lebih tinggi.

Bloom, Englehart, Furst, Hill dan Krathwohl kemudian pada tahun 1956 merumuskan ada tiga golongan (“domain”, ranah) kemampuan intelektual (“intellectual behaviors”)–seperti telah disebutkan di muka, yaitu ranah kognitif, afektif, dan psikomotor.

Ranah kognitif terdiri atas enam aras (level), yaitu: (1) knowledge (tahu; “ke-tahu-an”; —umumnya diindonesiakan dengan “pengetahuan” sehingga suka salah tangkap meniadi ilmu), (2) comprehension (paham, kepahaman–berbeda dari pemahaman atau persepsi), (3) application (penerapan), (4) analysis (penguraian, penjabaran), (5) synthesis (pemaduan), dan (6) evaluation (penilaian).

Penjabaran ranah kognitif menurut A Big Dog, Little Dog and Knowledge Jump Production (June 5, 1999. Updated May 26, 2009) sebagai berikut.

Category (Kelompok)	Example and Key Words (Contoh dan Kata Utama)
Knowledge: Recall data or information. [Tahu; ke-tahu-an”: Menyebut ulang data atau informasi]	Examples: Recite a policy. Quote prices from memory to a customer. Knows the safety rules. [Contoh: Mengulang suatu kebijakan. Menyebutkan harga barang dari ingatan ke konsumen. Tahu aturan perlindungan keselamatan]Key Words: defines, describes, identifies, knows, labels, lists, matches, names, outlines, recalls, recognizes, reproduces, selects, states. [Kata utama: merumuskan, memaparkan, mendaftar/mencatat, mencocokkan, sebutan-sebutan, garis besar, menyebutkan kembali, mengenali, membuat ulang, memilih menyatakan].
Comprehension: Understand the meaning, translation, interpolation, and interpretation of instructions and problems. State a problem in one’s own words [Paham; “ke-paham-an”: Memahami makna, terjemahan, interpolasi dan penafsiran pelajaran dan masalah. Bisa mengemukakan masalah dengan bahasa sendiri].	Examples: Rewrites the principles of test writing. Explain in one’s own words the steps for performing a complex task. Translates an equation into a computer spreadsheet [Contoh: Menuliskan kembali prinsip-prinsip penulisan tes. Menjelaskan dengan kalimat sendiri langkah-langkah mengerjakan sesuatu yang rumit. Menerjemahkan rumus persamaan ke dalam lembar kerja komputer].Key Words: comprehends, converts, defends, distinguishes, estimates, explains, extends, generalizes, gives Examples, infers, interprets, paraphrases, predicts, rewrites, summarizes, translates [Kata utama: memahami, mengubah, mempertahankan (pendapat, argumen), membedakan, memperkirakan, menjelaskan, memperluas, menyimpulkan, memberi contoh, menduga, merangkum, menafsirkan, menukil inti pembicaraan, meramalkan, menuliskan kembali, menerjemahkan].
Application: Use a concept in a new situation or unprompted use of an abstraction. Applies what was learned in the classroom into novel situations in the work place [Penerapan: Menggunakan sesuatu konsep ke dalam suatu situasi baru atau menggunakan abstraksi tanpa tuntunan. Menerapkan apa yang sudah dipelajari di kelas ke situasi baru dalam pekerjaan].	Examples: Use a manual to calculate an employee’s vacation time. Apply laws of statistics to evaluate the reliability of a written test [Contoh: Menggunakan panduan untuk menghitung waktu senggang karyawan.  Menerapkan hukum (dalil, rumus) statistik untuk menghitung taraf reliabilitas tes].Key Words: applies, changes, computes, constructs, demonstrates, discovers, manipulates, modifies, operates, predicts, prepares, produces, relates, shows, solves, uses [Kata utama: menerapkan, mengubah, menghitung, menyusun, meragakan/mempertunjukkan, menemukan, memanipulasi, memodifikasi, melaksanakan, meramalkan, menyiapkan, menghasilkan/membuat, menghubungkan, mempertunjukkan, mengatasi, menggunakan].
nalysis: Separates material or concepts into component parts so that its organizational structure may be understood. Distinguishes between facts and inferences. [Analisis: Menguraikan benda atau konsep menjadi unsur-unsur atau bagian-bagiannya, sehingga susunan tatanannya bisa terpahami. Membedakan antara  fakta dan tafsiran]	Examples: Troubleshoot a piece of equipment by using logical deduction. Recognize logical fallacies in reasoning. Gathers information from a department and selects the required tasks for training. [Contoh: Membetulkan kerusakan sebuah peralatan dengan menggungkan logika deduktif. Menemukan kesalahan penalaran. Mewnghimpun informasi dari unit kerja dan memilih tugas-tugas yang memerlukan pelatihan]. Key Words: analyzes, breaks down, compares, contrasts, diagrams, deconstructs, differentiates, discriminates, distinguishes, identifies, illustrates, infers, outlines, relates, selects, separates. [Kata utama: analisis, pisah-pisahkan, bandingkan, lawankan, diagramkan, ceraikan, bedakan, sisihkan, pilahkan, identifikasi, lukiskan, duga, garisbesarkan, hubungkan, pilih, pisahkan].
Synthesis: Builds a structure or pattern from diverse elements. Put parts together to form a whole, with emphasis on creating a new meaning or structure.	Examples: Write a company operations or process manual. Design a machine to perform a specific task. Integrates training from several sources to solve a problem. Revises and process to improve the outcome.Key Words: categorizes, combines, compiles, composes, creates, devises, designs, explains, generates, modifies, organizes, plans, rearranges, reconstructs, relates, reorganizes, revises, rewrites, summarizes, tells, writes.
Evaluation: Make judgments about the value of ideas or materials.	Examples: Select the most effective solution. Hire the most qualified candidate. Explain and justify a new budget.Key Words: appraises, compares, concludes, contrasts, criticizes, critiques, defends, describes, discriminates, evaluates, explains, interprets, justifies, relates, summarizes, supports.

Ranah afektif kurang mendapatkan perhatian dari mereka, walaupun kemudian dirumuskan Bloom, Krathwohl, dan Masia (1964) sebagai berkenaan dengan nilai (“value”) yang terentang jenjangnya dari “awareness/receiving” (menyadari dan menerima adanya nilai-nilai tertentu) sampai dengan kemampuan membedakan nilai-nilai yang tersirat (implisit, tak tampak kasat mata) melalui penganalisisan. Penjelasan dan jabarannya menurut A Big Dog, Little Dog and Knowledge Jump Production ( June 5, 1999. Updated May 26, 2009) sebagai berikut.

The affective domain (Krathwohl, Bloom, Masia, 1973) includes the manner in which we deal with things emotionally, such as feelings, values, appreciation, enthusiasms, motivations, and attitudes. The five major categories are listed from the simplest behavior to the most complex [Ranah afektif mencakup segala sesuatu yang terkait dengan emosi, misalnya perasaan, nilai, penghargaan, semangat, motivasi, dan sikap].

Komentar: Seperti telah diskemukakan di atas, di Indonesia ranah afektif itu suka-suka diperkerdil menjadi sikap, padahal afeksi bukan sikap (saja). Sikap (attitude) hanya salah satu bagian daripadanya, seperti disebutkan tadi.

Berikut rincian ranah afektif.

Category	Example and Key Words
Receiving Phenomena: Awareness, willingness to hear, selected attention.	Examples: Listen to others with respect. Listen for and remember the name of newly introduced people.Key Words: asks, chooses, describes, follows, gives, holds, identifies, locates, names, points to, selects, sits, erects, replies, uses.
Responding to Phenomena: Active participation on the part of the learners. Attends and reacts to a particular phenomenon. Learning outcomes may emphasize compliance in responding, willingness to respond, or satisfaction in responding (motivation).	Examples:  Participates in class discussions.  Gives a presentation. Questions new ideals, concepts, models, etc. in order to fully understand them. Know the safety rules and practices them.Key Words: answers, assists, aids, complies, conforms, discusses, greets, helps, labels, performs, practices, presents, reads, recites, reports, selects, tells, writes.
Valuing: The worth or value a person attaches to a particular object, phenomenon, or behavior. This ranges from simple acceptance to the more complex state of commitment. Valuing is based on the internalization of a set of specified values, while clues to these values are expressed in the learner’s overt behavior and are often identifiable.	Examples:  Demonstrates belief in the democratic process. Is sensitive towards individual and cultural differences (value diversity). Shows the ability to solve problems. Proposes a plan to social improvement and follows through with commitment. Informs management on matters that one feels strongly about.Key Words: completes, demonstrates, differentiates, explains, follows, forms, initiates, invites, joins, justifies, proposes, reads, reports, selects, shares, studies, works.
Organization: Organizes values into priorities by contrasting different values, resolving conflicts between them, and creating an unique value system.  The emphasis is on comparing, relating, and synthesizing values.	Examples:  Recognizes the need for balance between freedom and responsible behavior. Accepts responsibility for one’s behavior. Explains the role of systematic planning in solving problems. Accepts professional ethical standards. Creates a life plan in harmony with abilities, interests, and beliefs. Prioritizes time effectively to meet the needs of the organization, family, and self.Key Words: adheres, alters, arranges, combines, compares, completes, defends, explains, formulates, generalizes, identifies, integrates, modifies, orders, organizes, prepares, relates, synthesizes.
Internalizing values (characterization): Has a value system that controls their behavior. The behavior is pervasive, consistent, predictable, and most importantly, characteristic of the learner. Instructional objectives are concerned with the student’s general patterns of adjustment (personal, social, emotional).	Examples:  Shows self-reliance when working independently. Cooperates in group activities (displays teamwork). Uses an objective approach in problem solving.  Displays a professional commitment to ethical  practice on a daily basis. Revises judgments and changes behavior in light of new evidence. Values people for what they are, not how they look.Key Words: acts, discriminates, displays, influences, listens, modifies, performs, practices, proposes, qualifies, questions, revises, serves, solves, verifies.

Sementara itu, ranah psikomotor tidak dilanjutkan kajiannya oleh Bloom dan kawan-kawan. Akan tetapi, gambarannya menurut “A Big Dog …” sebagai berikut.

The psychomotor domain (Simpson, 1972) includes physical movement, coordination, and use of the motor-skill areas. Development of these skills requires practice and is measured in terms of speed, precision, distance, procedures, or techniques in execution. The seven major categories are listed from the simplest behavior to the most complex [Ranah psikomotor mencakup gerakan dan koordinasi jasmani dan pendayagunaan beragam kecakapan motorik. Pengembangan kecakapan-kecakapan tersebut memerlukan adanya latihan yang dapat diukur perkembangannya dilihat dari sudut kecepatan, ketepatan, jarak, tatacara, atau teknik pelaksanaan. Ada tujuh kelompok utama ranah psikomotor ini yang terentang dari perilaku yang paling sederhana sampai pada yang paling rumit].

Category	Example and Key Words
Perception: The ability to use sensory cues to guide motor activity.  This ranges from sensory stimulation, through cue selection, to translation.	Examples:  Detects non-verbal communication cues. Estimate where a ball will land after it is thrown and then moving to the correct location to catch the ball. Adjusts heat of stove to correct temperature by smell and taste of food. Adjusts the height of the forks on a forklift by comparing where the forks are in relation to the pallet.Key Words: chooses, describes, detects, differentiates, distinguishes, identifies, isolates, relates, selects.
Set: Readiness to act. It includes mental, physical, and emotional sets. These three sets are dispositions that predetermine a person’s response to different situations (sometimes called mindsets).	Examples:  Knows and acts upon a sequence of steps in a manufacturing process. Recognize one’s abilities and limitations. Shows desire to learn a new process (motivation). NOTE: This subdivision of Psychomotor is closely related with the “Responding to phenomena” subdivision of the Affective domain.Key Words: begins, displays, explains, moves, proceeds, reacts, shows, states, volunteers.
Guided Response: The early stages in learning a complex skill that includes imitation and trial and error. Adequacy of performance is achieved by practicing.	Examples:  Performs a mathematical equation as demonstrated. Follows instructions to build a model. Responds hand-signals of instructor while learning to operate a forklift.Key Words: copies, traces, follows, react, reproduce, responds.
Mechanism: This is the intermediate stage in learning a complex skill. Learned responses have become habitual and the movements can be performed with some confidence and proficiency.	Examples:  Use a personal computer. Repair a leaking faucet. Drive a car.Key Words: assembles, calibrates, constructs, dismantles, displays, fastens, fixes, grinds, heats, manipulates, measures, mends, mixes, organizes, sketches.
Complex Overt Response: The skillful performance of motor acts that involve complex movement patterns. Proficiency is indicated by a quick, accurate, and highly coordinated performance, requiring a minimum of energy. This category includes performing without hesitation, and automatic performance. For example, players are often utter sounds of satisfaction or expletives as soon as they hit a tennis ball or throw a football, because they can tell by the feel of the act what the result will produce.	Examples:  Maneuvers a car into a tight parallel parking spot. Operates a computer quickly and accurately. Displays competence while playing the piano.Key Words: assembles, builds, calibrates, constructs, dismantles, displays, fastens, fixes, grinds, heats, manipulates, measures, mends, mixes, organizes, sketches.NOTE: The Key Words are the same as Mechanism, but will have adverbs or adjectives that indicate that the performance is quicker, better, more accurate, etc.
Adaptation: Skills are well developed and the individual can modify movement patterns to fit special requirements.	Examples:  Responds effectively to unexpected experiences.  Modifies instruction to meet the needs of the learners. Perform a task with a machine that it was not originally intended to do (machine is not damaged and there is no danger in performing the new task).Key Words: adapts, alters, changes, rearranges, reorganizes, revises, varies.
Origination: Creating new movement patterns to fit a particular situation or specific problem. Learning outcomes emphasize creativity based upon highly developed skills.	Examples:  Constructs a new theory. Develops a new and comprehensive training programming. Creates a new gymnastic routine.Key Words: arranges, builds, combines, composes, constructs, creates, designs, initiate, makes, originates

Sepanjang akhir tahun 1990-an, sebuah kelompok psikolog kognitif (para ahli psikologi aliran kognitivisme) yang dipelopori oleh Anderson dan Sosniak (1994) memperbaharui  taksonomi Bloom tersebut agar lebih sesuai dengan/bagi abad XXI.  Perbedaannya seperti tampak dalam gambar berikut.

Taksonomi Bloom Versi Lama dan Baru

Agar lebih jelas dinukilkan gambar yang sama dari Richard C. Overbaugh dan Lynn Schultz, Old Dominion University–(online), dengan diawali penjelasan sejarah terbentuknya (dalam bahasa aslinya), berikut.

In 1956, Benjamin Bloom headed a group of educational psychologists who developed a classification of levels of intellectual behavior important in learning. During the 1990′s a new group of cognitive psychologist, lead by Lorin Anderson (a former student of Bloom’s), updated the taxonomy reflecting relevance to 21st century work. The graphic is a representation of the NEW verbage associated with the long familiar Bloom’s Taxonomy. Note the change from Nouns to Verbs to describe the different levels of the taxonomy.

Note that the top two levels are essentially exchanged from the Old to the New version.

Old Version

New Version

Perubahan terjadi pada aras (level) 1 yang semula sebagai “knowledge” (tahu, “ketahuan”–) berubah menjadi “remembering” (mengingat). Perubahan terjadi juga pada level 2, yaitu “comprehension” yang dipertegas menjadi “understanding” (paham, memahami). Level 3 diubah sebutan dari “application” menjadi “applying” (menerapkan). Level 4 juga diubah sebutan dari “analysis” menjadi “analysing” (menganalisis).

Perubahan mendasar terletak pada level 5 dan 6. “Evaluation” versi lama diubah posisisinya dari level 6 menjadi level 5, juga dengan perubahan sebutan dari “evaluation” menjadi “evaluating” (menilai). Level 5 lama, yaitu “synthesis” (pemaduan) hilang, dinaikkan levelnya menjadi level 6 tetapi dengan perubahan mendasar, yaitu dengan nama “creating” (mencipta).

Jadi taksonomi Bloom versi baru terdiri atas (dari level 1 sampai 6): remembering (mengingat), understanding (memahami), applying (menerapkan), analysing (menganalisis, mengurai), evaluating (menilai) dan creating (mencipta). Gambaran perubahannya tampak seperti dilukiskan “A Big Dog …” berikut.

Perubahan Versi Lama ke Versi Baru Taksonomi Bloom

Penjabaran masing-masing level itu sebagai berikut.

1.0. Remember (retrieving relevant knowledge from long-term memory)–mengingat (memunculkan kembali apa yang sudah diketahui dan tersimpan dalam ingatan jangka-panjang);

1.1. Recognizing (mengenali lagi)

1.2. Recalling (menyebutkan kembali)

2.0. Understand (determining the meaning of instructional messages, including oral, written, and graphic communication– rpaham, memahami (menegaskan pengertian atau makna bahan-bahan yang sudah diajarkan, mencakup komunikasi lisan, tertulis, maupun gambar)

2.1. Interpreting (menafsiri, mengartikan, menerjemahkan)

2.2. Exemplifying (memberi contoh)

2.3. Classifying (menggolong-golongkan, mengelompokkan)

2.4. Summarizing (merangkum, meringkas)

2.5. Inferring (melakukan inferensi, menduga, memperkirakan)

2.6. Comparing (membandingkan)

2.7. Explaining (memberikan penjelasan)

3.0. Apply (carrying out or using a procedure in a given situation)–menerapkan (melakukan sesuatu, atau menggunakan sesuatu prosedur dalam situasi tertentu)

3.1. Executing (melaksanakan)

3.2. Implementing (menerapkan)

4.0. Analyze (breaking material into its constituent parts and detecting how the parts relate to one another and to an overall structure or purpose)–analisis (menguraikan sesuatu ke dalam bagian-bagian yang membentuknya, dan menetapkan bagaimana bagian-bagian atau unsur-unsur tersebut satu sama lain saling terkait, dan bagaimana kaitan unsur-unsur tersebut kepada keseluruhan struktur atau tujuan sesuatu itu)

4.1. Differentiating (membeda-bedakan)

4.2. Organizing (menata atau menyusun)

4.3. Attributing (meneteapkan sifat atau ciri)

5.0. Evaluate (making judgments based on criteria and standards–evaluasi atau menilai (menetapkan derajat sesuatu berdasarkan kriteria atau patokan tertentu)

5.1. Checking (mengecek)

5.2. Critiquing (mengkritisi)

6.0. Create (putting elements together to form a novel, coherent whole or make an original product)–mencipta (memadukan unsur-unsur menjadi sesuatu bentuk utuh yang koheren dan baru, atau membuat sesuatu yang orisinil)

6.1. Generating (memunculkan, memperoleh)

6.2. Planning (merencanakan, membuat rencana)

6.3. Producing (menghasilkan karya).

Salah satu komentar (kritik) terhadap hierarki taksonomi kognitif ini adalah bahwa level-level itu tidak berurutan mengerucut, karena tiga level puncak sifatnya setara. Gambarnya sebagai berikut (Anderson and Krathwohl, 2001; dalam Wikipedia)

Sekedar gambaran awal di bawah ini dinukilkan penerapannya (Copyright (c) 2005 Extended Campus — Oregon State University http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/coursedev/models/id/taxonomy/#table Designer/Developer – Dianna Fisher). Ditambah dengan nukilan dari Richard C. Overbaugh dan Lynn Schultz, Old Dominion University– (online).

Remembering: can the student recall or remember the information?	define, duplicate, list, memorize, recall, repeat, reproduce, state
Understanding: can the student explain ideas or concepts?	classify, describe, discuss, explain, identify, locate, recognize, report, select, translate, paraphrase
Applying: can the student use the information in a new way?	choose, demonstrate, dramatize, employ, illustrate, interpret, operate, schedule, sketch, solve, use, write.
Analyzing: can the student distinguish between the different parts?	appraise, compare, contrast, criticize, differentiate, discriminate, distinguish, examine, experiment, question, test.
Evaluating: can the student justify a stand or decision?	appraise, argue, defend, judge, select, support, value, evaluate
Creating: can the student create new product or point of view?	assemble, construct, create, design, develop, formulate,write.